Cara Menambah Bingkai Pada Photo dengan Menggunakan Adobe Photoshop

• Jalan kan Program adobe photoshop saya menggunakan versi 7
• Pilih foto yang ingin anda tambahkan bingkainya Bisa dengan menekan Ctrl + O
• Pilih bingkai yang ingin anda tambahkan Dengan menekan Ctrl + O
• Pada Erase tool klik kanan dan clik kiri magic erase
• Clik pada bagian tengah bingkai maka bingkai ankan menjadi seperti gambar.
• Clik Move tool.
• Clik pada gambar yang akan di beri bingkai, drag ke arah bingkai.
• Atur besar kecil gambar sesuai ukuran bingkai dengan cara mngklik dan tahan pada kotak yang ada disamping gambar
• Bila kotak di samping gambar tidak muncul apada tool bar clik show bounding box
• Setelah ukuran gambar sesuai pada layer clik layer yang berisi gambar drag ke bawah
• sehingga layer bingkai di atas dan layer gambar menjadi di bawah
• dan tampilan gambar akan menjadi seperti gambar berikut
• Tinggal di save dan selesai lah gambar dan bingkai telah menyatu. Ingat pada saat mensave ubah psd menjadi Jpg.

 semoga berguna.

SASTRA

Dr. Abdullah Dahana Dekan Fakultas Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya Universitas Indonesia berkesimpulan bahwa istilah Sastra telah mengalami penyempitan arti, “Kebanyakan kaum awam menganggap sastra hanyalah ilmu yang mengurusi kesusastraan saja. Padahal arti sastra sesungguhnya itu sendiri adalah ilmu yang mempelajari kebudayaan secara luas. Itulah salah satu penyebab Fakultas Sastra berganti baju menjadi Fakultas Ilmu Budaya.”

Menurut KBBI arti sastra adalah:
(1) bahasa (kata-kata, gaya bahasa) yang dipakai dalam kitab-kitab (bukan bahasa sehari-hari);
(2) karya tulis, yang jika dibandingkan dengan tulisan lain, memiliki berbagai ciri keunggulan seperti keaslian, keartistikan, keindahan dalam isi dan ungkapannya.
Jadi apa definisi sastra itu?
Mari kita cari! (be a winner, not a loser). Ada sebuah dialog bapak dengan anak yang saya temukan di situs penerbit Mizan tentang pengajaran dan penggambaran sastra. Sebuah artikel yang cukup menarik!
Dalam bahasa Inggris kita mengenal kata literature, diserap menjadi literatur ke dalam bahasa Indonesia. Arti literature (menurut kamus online WorldNet) adalah:
1: creative writing of recognized artistic value
2: the humanistic study of a body of literature; “he took a course in French literature”
3: published writings in a particular style on a particular subject; “the technical literature”; “one aspect of Waterloo has not yet been treated in the literature”
4: the profession or art of a writer; “her place in literature is secure”
Apakah sastra memiliki definisi yang sama dengan literature?
Jika melihat perbandingan arti dua kamus di atas terdapat perbedaan bahwa arti literatur dalam bahasa Inggris memiliki arti yang lebih lebar dibandingkan arti sastra dalam bahasa Indonesia.
Sebuah pepatah mengatakan “Bahasa menunjukkan bangsa”, pepatah ini benar sebagai eksistensi sebuah bangsa di dunia. Siapa lagi yang harus berbahasa Indonesia selain kita sendiri supaya tidak kehilangan identitas diri?
Bahasa, selain dipertahankan sebagai warisan budaya pula harus dikembangkan, salah satu yang penting adalah kosakata baru. Sebenarnya kosakata baru yang murni diciptakan oleh orang Indonesia itu ada, seperti contohnya adalah pindai (scan), tikalas (subscript), tikatas (superscript). Tapi siapa yang menggunakan? Apakah publikasi lembaga bahasa kurang? atau justru lembaga bahasa tidak mempublikasikan apa-apa?
Selain mencari kombinasi dari 26 karakter latin sebagai kosakata baru, bahasa Indonesia memiliki metoda tersendiri untuk membentuk inovasi kosakata yaitu dengan sisipan ataupun imbuhan. Contoh yang paling umum adalah kinerja (performance) yang berasal dari kerja atau sinambung (continuous) dari kata sambung. Mengapa tidak kita ciptakan misalnya tinembak, pinanjang, pinendek, sinempit atau linuas?
SOURCE

Apresiasi Sastra dan Apresiasi Hidup

Istilah apresiasi berasal dari bahasa latin, apreciatio, yang berarti 'mengindahkan' atau 'mengahargai'. Menurut S. Effendi, apresiasi sastra adalah kegiatan 'menggauli' karya sastra secara sungguh-sungguh sehingga menumbuhkan pengertian, penghargaan, kepekaan pikiran kritis dan kepekaan perasaan yang baik terhadap karya sastra.

Banyak cara yang bisa kita lakukan untuk mengapresiasi sebuah karya sastra. Salah satunya adalah dengan membaca. Karya sastra yang dimaksud di sini adalah prosa (novel, cerpen, hikayat dll), puisi dan drama.

Kegiatan mengapresiasi karya sastra dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu kegiatan mengapresiasi karya sastra secara langsung dan tidak langsung. Apresiasi secara langsung dapat diwujudkan dengan membaca, melihat (jika diwujudkan dalam sebuah teater pertunjukan atau film), memahami, menikmati, menganalisis dan mengevaluasi karya sastra tersebut. Sedangkan secara tidak langsung dapat diwujudkan dengan mempelajari teori sastra.

Menurut Herman J. Waluyo, ada 4 tingkatan dalam mengapresiasi, yaitu :

1. Menggemari. Artinya, pembaca yang mampu terbawa atau hanyut dalam cerita dan menggemari karya sastra yang dibaca. Atau menggemari pelaku-pelaku yang diciptakan oleh pengarang.
2. Menikmati. Artinya, pembaca yang dapat menikmati dan merasakan dalamnya perasaan manusia (dapat mengungkapkan kepribadian dan alam pikiran pelaku).
3. Reaksi. Artinya, pembaca yang mampu membandingkan karya yang satu dengan karya lainnya dan mampu memberikan pendapat mengenai karya tersebut. Serta dapat membaca karya yang lebih 'sulit' dengan kenikmatan.
4. Pembaca yang mampu melihat keindahan susunan dialog, setting simbolis pemakaian kata-kata yang berirama yang disajikan oleh pengarang dan dapat merespon karya sastra sehingga dapat merangsang proses berfikir.

Sebenarnya ada satu tingkatan lagi dalam mengapresiasi sebuah karya, tingkatan yang paling tinggi di antara 4 tingkatan tersebut, yaitu proses kreatif. Yang dimaksud dengan proses kreatif di sini adalah seorang pembaca yang telah mampu memberikan respon terhadap karya sastra dengan seni yang dibuatnya sendiri. Yang dimaksud 'seni yang dibuatnya sendiri' di sini artinya adalah bahwa pembaca telah mampu menghasilkan karyanya sendiri setelah mengapresiasi karya sastra orang lain.

Seperti halnya sebuah karya, hidup manusia pun haruslah kita apresiasi. Tuhan telah memberikan karunia kehidupan kepada kita, apapun keadaan kehidupan kita sekarang, kitalah yang harus mengapresiasinya, menghargainya dan menjalaninya sebaik mungkin.

Sama seperti apa yang diungkapkan Herman J. Waluyo bahwa tingkat apresiasi yang pertama adalah menggemari. Jika kita sulit untuk menerima kenyataan hidup, langkah awal yang harus kita lakukan adalah menggemarinya. Menyukai hidup kita! Kemudian barulah kita menikmatinya dan memberikan reaksi yang positif terhadap kehidupan kita. Di tingkat yang ketiga, '..mampu membaca karya sastra yang 'sulit' dengan kenikmatan', jika kita analogikan apresiasi sastra dengan apresiasi hidup, kalimat di atas kira-kira dapat berarti seperti ini, '...mampu menghadapi cobaan yang berat sekalipun dengan kenikmatan (rasa syukur dan keikhlasan).

Tahap selanjutnya yaitu mampu membandingkan, mana yang baik dan mana yang buruk. Mana perbuatan yang seharusnya dilakukan dan mana yang seharusnya tidak dilakukan.

Hiduplah dengan sebaik-baiknya. Apresiasilah hidup kita! Berjuanglah! Jangan menyerah! Ganbatteeeee~!!! XDD

 SOURCE

My Extracurricular Activity in Senior High School

 

When I was in the Senior High School, I joined two extracurricular activities. They were PMR(Palang Merah Remaja) and Rohis. I took those activity because I will learn about organization and religion. I joined PMR on Friday afternoon and Rohis on Friday at 11 a.m.

One day, PMR held an activity, they would hold a camp out in Bukit Napu. There were eighteen person joining the camping. We prepared it well. Arriving at the camping, we founded a tent. After that we registered to join in some emulation, there were Stretcher and  Cooking. At stretcher emulation, we must bring a person on stretcher, gone by wet rice field, jumped the  stonewall, walked as far as 1500 metres . It was very tired, but we kept spirit.

The next day, we prepared for cooking emulation. Goods was not sufficient to make a lot of food. So, we made food with makeshift materials.

Last day of camp, committee announced who won the previous race. we got the second prize for the contest to cook and of course we was happy , but we did not get a winner in the race stretcher.

However, we remain pleased that by following this activity, we can learn a lot about race.

language

1. 1. Communication of thoughts and feelings through a system of arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols.
   2. Such a system including its rules for combining its components, such as words.
   3. Such a system as used by a nation, people, or other distinct community; often contrasted with dialect.
2. 1. A system of signs, symbols, gestures, or rules used in communicating: the language of algebra.
   2. Computer Science. A system of symbols and rules used for communication with or between computers.
3. Body language; kinesics.
4. The special vocabulary and usages of a scientific, professional, or other group: "his total mastery of screen language-camera placement, editing-and his handling of actors" (Jack Kroll).
5. A characteristic style of speech or writing: Shakespearean language.
6. A particular manner of expression: profane language; persuasive language.
7. The manner or means of communication between living creatures other than humans: the language of dolphins.
8. Verbal communication as a subject of study.
9. The wording of a legal document or statute as distinct from the spirit.

source

Attitude

An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for something. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event— this is often referred to as the attitude object. People can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both positive and negative attitudes toward the item in question. definitions of attitude An attitude can be defined as a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, event, activities, ideas, or just about anything in your environment (Zimbardo et al., 1999) In the opinion of Bain (1927), an attitude is "the relatively stable overt behavior of a person which affects his status." "Attitudes which are common to a group are thus social attitudes or `values' in the Thomasonian sense. The attitude is the status-fixing behavior.

Attitude is a reaction or response from someone who is still closed to a stimulus or object. (Notoatmodjo, 2003)

Principal Components of Attitudes

In another section, Allport (1954) explains that the attitude it has 3 main components:

1. Belief (faith), ideas and concepts to an object.

2. Emotional life or emotional evaluation of an object.

3. Propensity to act (growing niche to behave).

All three of these components together to form a whole attitude. In determining this whole attitude, knowledge, thoughts, beliefs and emotions play an important role.

As with the knowledge, attitude consists of various levels.

1. Receive (receiving)

Accepting means that the person (subject) like and pay attention to a given stimulus (object). For example, attitudes toward nutrition and can be seen from the willingness of people's attention to the lectures.

2. Responding (responding)

Provide an answer when asked, doing and completing assigned tasks is an indication of the attitude.

3. Respecting (valuing)

Inviting someone else to do or discuss a problem is an indication of the attitude of the three.

4. Be responsible

Responsible for everything that has been chosen with all the risks are the highest attitude.

(Notoatmodjo, 2003: 126)

 

American Attitudes Toward the Elderly

The Youth Culture. Present-day American attitudes about the elderly have been reinforced by a century's worth of media, particularly movies and television. From the 1950's onward, a great culture of youth, fed by teen heros like James Dean and his sucessors over the decades, emerged and strengthened. Old people were left out of the picture. The period after World War Two also saw great mobility in America, which led to the break-up of large extended families. The old person was no longer seen as a useful member of a family team, but rather as a drain on the family's resources.

The Shrinking Family. Older people had previously depended on their families, hence on younger people, for support in their “declining years,” but suddenly that support was gone. Older people suffered as a result. Government programs could provide money at best, and never enough of it, hardly a substitute for a caring, loving family. Living past seventy became, for many, a rather bleak prospect, a time of loneliness, poverty and illness.

The Stereotype. The youth culture did another great disservice in stereotyping old people as chronically ill, unable to work, behind the times, slow-thinking, useless financial burdens on society. The idea that old people could actually fall in love or have sex with each other is embarrassing to many Americans, old, young and in-between. The baby boomer generation, which at present is fast entering the ranks fo the elderly, has other ideas about this stereotype.

Older Americans are Vital. Not one of these stereotypes is true, of course, certainly not the poverty notion. Americans over the age of fifty own 75 percent of all American assets and spend half the money. A full 70 percent of these people own their own homes. They vote and are active in the community to a greater extent than young people. You can find them out there doing sports and outdoor activities, or working out at the gym. If they find themselves single, divorced or widowed, they keep the Internet dating services humming, looking for each other. Just like younger people, they are just as likely to fall in love and, yes, they do actually have sex with each other.

American Attitude

·      If you have an appointment, you'll mutter an excuse if you're five minutes late, and apologize profusely if it's ten minutes. An hour late is almost inexcusable.

·      If you're talking to someone, you get uncomfortable if they approach closer than about two feet.

·      About the only things you expect to bargain for are houses, cars, and antiques. Haggling is largely a matter of finding the hidden point that's the buyer's minimum.

·      Once you're past college, you very rarely simply show up at someone's place. People have to invite each other over-- especially if a meal is involved.

·      When you negotiate, you are polite, of course, but it's only good business to 'play hardball'. Some foreigners pay excessive attention to status, or don't say what they mean, and that's exasperating.

·      If you have a business appointment or interview with someone, you expect to have that person to yourself, and the business shouldn't take more than an hour or so.

credit: for various sources

Ethnicity

1. Ethnicity 

Ethnicity, or ethnic identity, refers to membership in a particular cultural group. It is defined by shared cultural practises, including but not limited to holidays, food, language, and customs. 

People can share the same nationality but have different ethnic groups. For example, citizens of the United States are of many different ethnic backgrounds. 

 People who share an ethnic identity can be of different nationalities. Turkish citizens of Turkey and Turkish citizens in Germany share an ethnic identity but are of different nationalities.

An ethnic group (or ethnicity) is a group of people whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage, often consisting of a common language, a common culture (often including a shared religion) and/or an ideology that stresses common ancestry or endogamy.Another definition is "...a highly biologically self-perpetuating group sharing an interest in a homeland connected with a specific geographical area, a common language and traditions, including food preferences, and a common religious faith".

Members of an ethnic group are conscious of belonging to an ethnic group; moreover ethnic identity is further marked by the recognition from others of a group's distinctiveness. Processes that result in the emergence of such identification are called ethnogenesis.

father

morning......
there is sun shine brightly
my life look so perfect
have a good family
friend,
but do you know? why i am very sad?
i can't make my father happy yet
you know why?
because i am very  naughty and like to postpone the good thing

Summary Book

Title of book                : Cogito Allah Sum

Author                         : Lalu Muhammad Zaenudin

Number of pages         : 290                Date published: January 2008

Fiction or nonfiction    : Fiction

What is this book about?

This novel tells the story of a young man named Rian in search of God. He is a student at a college math major city. His parents, including a religious family in their village.

Rian originally religious, because of her social in the city, he became not believe in the existence of God. Until he got a mysterious message from his father who realizes that he has never prayed again, his father told, if he realized he had ripped the rug, then immediately re-knitting yarn mat with love and sincerity, then, God willing, will you achieve ultimate happiness. This is of course only he considered the wind  and thought that was ridiculous.

But, although he thinks like that, his mind was still thinking about his father's message. He thought hard and still no answer. Answer "smart" he found, maybe his father just talking nonsense, just to motivate me in worship, but have not I been free from God, so he thought.

Rian carried away with his thoughts about the absence of God. He occasionally became speaker in the forum of enlightenment, one of them talk about religion and God. He was so proud of his thinking. At the forum , he met a girl that captivated his heart, her name is Firna. Firna also joined in the forum's enlightenment.

From that introduction, it turns out Firna also interested in Rio, but because Rian does not say his feelings on Firna, Firna dating with Rio, a close friend Rian. Automaticly, Rian felt betrayed by Rio, resentment grew.

Rian tried to woo Firna  by saying that Rio may be a boyfriend, but before that, Firna must be dating with Rian, Firna agreed.

Two weeks went by, Rio knew this and felt betrayed Rian. Rio plead to Rian to release Firna for him, because he was dependent on Firna. Amid the debate, Rio heart disease relapse.

Rian who knew it immediately says that he will indeed be releasing Firna because he just wants to play around with Firna. Firna angry and slapped Rian. Rian go with laugh out loud but weep sore in the liver. Actually he did not want to hurt Rio.

The days he went through with great sadness and emptiness. Until an accident happened to him. He was comatose. People who hit him responsibly and care for him. The man named Mr. Abdullah.

From that event, he got a new family. He often visited Mr. Abdullah's home, helping Putri’s homework, child of Mr Abdullah. He was also interested in Mr Abdullah's eldest daughter, Eni. Eni is a devout Muslim. Muslim clothing makes Rian feel comfortable.

Mr. Abdullah's family, including a devout family, so when Rian says that he is not religious and do not believe in God, Mr. Abdullah decided silaturrahim rope. Rian frustrated, he drank alcohol until drunk. Amid the turmoil, he went to the mosque and started praying when he was drunk. He tells all of his problem and complained to the God in an angry tone, but still he think that God actually exists or not. Suddenly there is a set of youths who beat him, they think Rian is ordinary people who stole a charity box at the mosque. He was beaten up black and blue. Luckily, Mr. Haj come to his rescue and treat the wound.

There, he heard the strains of beautiful verses from Al-Qur’an, at first he wanted to chase away  but his peace when to hear it, he realized he also wanted the peace of the soul, not just peace of mind in rationality.

Then he asks Pak Haji to introduce him to the God is in his heart again.

Since then he began to actively read religious books and follow the propagation studies campus. Hope and zest for life began to emerge and surge in the liver.

He continued to study and learn. In seriousness to know God, there is a question from a member of the forum enlightenment, named Berdy. Berdy asked about whether God could create something great, such an impenetrable shield and sword are very sharp and if God could be creating something more powerful than God, not God almighty creator?

Rian created dilemma by this question. Once asked in many places, he still did not get a response. Until Pak Haji show who can answer it, he is Hajj Mustafa , who is none other than his own father. Apparently Mr. Hajj and his father were close friends. So, whatever happened to Rian, his father already knew everything.

Rian feel very guilty to his father for having to cover all of this. he begged forgiveness of his father and mother.

Rian got the answer from The question, his father explained that the question of the sword and shield it like a game of numbers. Both have different strengths. In the numbers game, they must be distinguished in the power points. For example swords and shields have +5 points and -5 points, then in mathematical logic to +5 + (-5) = 0. So the result was not there.

Likewise with the second question, before answering that question, we must agree on the meaning of the word “Great”, “Great” it's not something that is infinite, that is not his equal again. So when there are questions to create a rival of something great, almighty mean he defines it is not infinite finite.

Rian is very familiar with his father described a simple explanation. He wondered why things like this he is not thought of before.

Now he has realized that the more he thought about the nature of God, God is getting there. God's undeniable by any rational philosophy and logic, represent phosphorescent glow a very clear mental tranquility.

What is the best part? In my opinion, the best part of this novel are when Rian re willing to learn to know God and realizes that his father was not another man from what he thought before.

The Relationship between Language and Culture

A.                  What Is Culture

In 1871, in his classic book Primitive Culture, British anthropologist Edward Tylor first gave the definition of culture which is widely quoted: “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom and any other capacities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.

Culture, argued by many anthropologists, most notably Clifford Geertz, is a symbolic meaning system. It is semiotic system in which symbols function to communicate meaning from one mind to another. Cultural symbols encode a connection between a signifying form and a signaled meaning. From the standpoint of contemporary cultural anthropologists, culture is characterized by the following four basic features:

1) Culture is a kind of social inheritance instead of biological heritage;

2) Culture is shared by the whole community, not belonging to any particular individual;

3) Culture is a symbolic meaning system in which language is one of the most important ones;

4) Culture is a unified system, the integral parts of which are closely related to one another.

Various definitions on culture are given by scholars from different points of view.  Some treated culture superficially as a set of specific artifacts, man-made environments, patterns of social organization and overt forms of behavior. Others treated culture in a more abstract way as the shared knowledge of members of social communities like world views, value orientations, norms, manners, customs, preferred styles of thinking and arguing, etc. Being taken as “socially acquired knowledge” (Hudson, 1980: 74), culture is classified by some scholars into cultural knowledge information and cultural communication information. The former refers to the factual information which does not exert a direct influence on the cross-cultural communication, including a nation’s history, geography and so on. The latter points to the socio-pragmatic rules in daily communication which entail not only ways of greeting, thanking, apologizing and addressing, but also attention to taboos, euphemisms, modesty and polite formula in use, etc. The factual information provides the non-native speakers with no direct dilemmas.

B.                  What is Language?

According to Sapir (1921), “language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desire by means of voluntarily produced symbols.” Language is a part of culture and a part of human behavior.

It is often held that the function of language is to express thought and to communicate information. Language also fulfills many other tasks such as greeting people, conducting religious service, etc.

Krech（1962）explained the major functions of language from the following three aspects:

1）Language is the primary vehicle of communication;

2）Language reflects both the personality of the individual and the culture of his history. In turn, it helps shape both personality and culture;

3）Language makes possible the growth and transmission of culture, the continuity of societies, and the effective functioning and control of social group.

C. Relationship between culture and language

The connection between culture and language has been noted as far back as the classical period and probably long before. The ancient Greeks, for example, distinguished between civilized peoples and bárbaros "those who babble", i.e. those who speak unintelligible languages. The fact that different groups speak different, unintelligible languages is often considered more tangible evidence for cultural differences than other less obvious cultural traits.

Indeed, the origin of language, understood as the human capacity of complex symbolic communication, and the origin of complex culture is often thought to stem from the same evolutionary process in early man. Evolutionary anthropologists[citation needed] suppose that language evolved as early humans began to live in large communities which required the use of complex communication to maintain social coherence. Language and culture then both emerged as a means of using symbols to construct social identity and maintain coherence within a social group too large to rely exclusively on pre-human ways of building community such as for example grooming. Since language and culture are both in essence symbolic systems, twentieth century cultural theorists have applied the methods of analyzing language developed in the science of linguistics to also analyze culture. Particularly the structural theory of Ferdinand de Saussure, which describes symbolic systems as consisting of signs (a pairing of a particular form with a particular meaning), has come to be applied widely in the study of culture. But also post-structuralist theories, that nonetheless still rely on the parallel between language and culture as systems of symbolic communication, have been applied in the field of semiotics. The parallel between language and culture can then be understood as analog to the parallel between a linguistic sign, consisting for example of the sound [kau] and the meaning "cow", and a cultural sign, consisting for example of the cultural form of "wearing a crown" and the cultural meaning of "being king". In this way it can be argued that culture is itself a kind of language. Another parallel between cultural and linguistic systems is that they are both systems of practice, that is they are a set of special ways of doing things that is constructed and perpetuated through social interactions. Children, for example, acquire language in the same way as they acquire the basic cultural norms of the society they grow up in – through interaction with older members of their cultural group.

However, languages, now understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular community, are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speak them. Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group and difference from others. Even among speakers of one language several different ways of using the language exist, and each is used to signal affiliation with particular subgroups within a larger culture. In linguistics such different ways of using the same language are called "varieties". For example, the English language is spoken differently in the USA, the UK and Australia, and even within English-speaking countries there are hundreds of dialects of English that each signal a belonging to a particular region and/or subculture. For example, in the UK the cockney dialect signals its speakers' belonging to the group of lower class workers of east London. Differences between varieties of the same language often consist in different pronunciations and vocabulary, but also sometimes of different grammatical systems and very often in using different styles (e.g. cockney Rhyming slang or Lawyers' jargon). Linguists and anthropologists, particularly sociolinguists, ethnolinguists and linguistic anthropologists have specialized in studying how ways of speaking vary between speech communities.

A community's ways of speaking or signing are a part of the community's culture, just as other shared practices are. Language use is a way of establishing and displaying group identity. Ways of speaking function not only to facilitate communication, but also to identify the social position of the speaker. Linguists call different ways of speaking language varieties, a term that encompasses geographically or socioculturally defined dialects as well as the jargons or styles of subcultures. Linguistic anthropologists and sociologists of language define communicative style as the ways that language is used and understood within a particular culture.

The differences between languages does not consist only in differences in pronunciation, vocabulary or grammar, but also in different "cultures of speaking". Some cultures for example have elaborate systems of "social deixis", systems of signalling social distance through linguistic means. In English, social deixis is shown mostly though distinguishing between addressing some people by first name and others by surname, but also in titles such as "Mrs.", "boy", "Doctor" or "Your Honor", but in other languages such systems may be highly complex and codified in the entire grammar and vocabulary of the language. In several languages of east Asia, for example Thai, Burmese and Javanese, different words are used according to whether a speaker is addressing someone of higher or lower rank than oneself in a ranking system with animals and children ranking the lowest and gods and members of royalty as the highest.Other languages may use different forms of address when speaking to speakers of the opposite gender or in-law relatives and many languages have special ways of speaking to infants and children. Among other groups, the culture of speaking may entail not speaking to particular people, for example many indigenous cultures of Australia have a taboo against talking to one's in-law relatives, and in some cultures speech is not addressed directly to children. Some languages also require different ways of speaking for different social classes of speakers, and often such a system is based on gender differences, as in Japanese and Koasati.

We can summarize the relationship between culture and language as the following: language is a key component of culture. It is the primary medium for transmitting much of culture. Without language, culture would not be possible. Children learning their native language are learning their own culture; learning a second language also involves learning a second culture to varying degrees. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture. It reflects culture. Cultural differences are the most serious areas causing misunderstanding, unpleasantness and even conflict in cross-cultural communication.

credit:from various sources